Individual Rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Individual Rights - Essay Example One of those such rights would be the Miranda rights. In defining them, "Also known as the Miranda Rule or Miranda Warning, when you are arrested in the U.S.A., police officers must warn you that you have the right to remain silent, that anything you say could be used against you in a court of law, that you have a right to contact a lawyer and that if you cannot afford a lawyer, that one will be provided before any questioning if so desired," Adding that, "Failure to issue the Miranda warning renders evidence so obtained to not be admissible in the court. The warning became a national requirement when ordered by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1966 case Miranda v. Arizona and that is how it got the name," (LawInfo.com, p.1). In the respect of this definition, the case involving Jane Smith would fall into direct violation in regards to the merits and meaning behind Miranda Rights. As the rights clearly state, a person has to be given the opportunity to posses legal counsel at the time of arrest and to have on one present during legal ques tioning. Another pertinent issue towards the legality of the case against a person in Jane Smith's position is the lack of parental consent towards the interrogation of their child who would have been a minor at the time. As common law states, when someone is a minor, they are to be approached with the knowledge and presence of their parents to consent to such approach. As the alleged perpetrator of the crime in question was a minor at the time, they would still be protected by the laws for interrogating minors despite whether or not the deciding authority wishes to charge the alleged as an adult. As there had been no written transferring of guardianship, the Uncle of Jane Smith would have no legal authority in regards to determining how, or even if his niece was to be questioned by the police. With the creation of laws, there is often times events and people that come as a way of facilitating such laws needing to be in place. In the case of the events leading up to case that which lead to the creation of the Miranda Rights law; A kidnapping and sexual assault occurred in Phoenix, Arizona, in March 1963. On March 13 Ernesto Miranda, 23, was arrested in his home, taken to the police station, identified by the victim, and taken into the interrogation room. Miranda was not told of his rights to counsel prior to questioning. Two hours later, investigators emerged from the room with a written confession signed by Miranda. It included a typed disclaimer, also signed by Miranda, stating that he had "full knowledge of my legal rights, understanding any statement I make may be used against me," and that he had knowingly waived those rights (Miranda v. Arizona, p.1). Such case practices that would later become illegal with the creation of the Miranda rights at the conclusion of the trial of Ernesto Miranda. Years since, the issue of delivering Miranda rights to person's in custody has become a central issue to the implementation of the American Judicial system in the way in which it was intended. For reasons of prosecuting crimes, the information gathered from alleged perpetrators is placed under great scrutiny as it comes to the methods for which they were gathered in the first place. Such attention paid in that, if collected even with the slightest bit of a hint that something had

Effect of Video Games Essay Example for Free

Effect of Video Games Essay A video game is an electronic game that involves human interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device. The word videoin video game traditionally referred to cathode ray tube (CRT) display device, but it now implies any type of display device that can produce two or three dimensional images. The electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms; examples of these are personal computers and video game consoles .These platforms range from large mainframe computers to small handheld devices. Specialized video games such as arcade games, while previously common, have gradually declined in use. Video games have gone on to become an art form and industry. The input device used to manipulate video games is called a game controller, and varies across platforms. For example, a controller might consist of only a button and a joystick, while another may feature a dozen buttons and one or more joysticks. Early personal computer games often needed a keyboard for game play, or more commonly, required the user to buy a separate joystick with at least one button. Many modern computer games allow or require the player to use a keyboard and a mouse simultaneously. A few of the most common game controllers are gamepads, mouse’s, keyboards, and joysticks. Video games typically use additional means of providing interactivity and information to the player. Audio is almost universal, using sound reproduction devices, such as speakers and headphones. Other feedback may come via haptic peripherals, such as vibration or force feedback, with vibration sometimes used to simulate force feedback. In the early days of cartridge consoles, they were sometimes called TV games. Early games used interactive electronic devices with various display formats. The earliest example is from 1947—a Cathode ray tube Amusement Device was filed for a patent on 25 January 1947, by Thomas T. Goldsmith and Estle Ray Mann, and issued on 14 December 1948, as U.S. Patent 2455992. Inspired by radar display tech, it consisted of an analog device that allowed a user to control a vector-drawn dot on the screen to simulate a missile being fired at targets, which were drawings fixed to the screen. Other early examples include: * The NIMROD computer at the 1951 Festival of Britain * * OXO a tic-tac-toe Computer game by Alexander S. Douglas for the EDSAC * in 1952 * Tennis for Two, an interactive game engineered by William Higinbotham in 1958 The term platform refers to the specific combination of electronic components or computer hardware which, in conjunction with software, allows a video game to operate. The term system is also commonly used. In common use a PC game refers to a form of media that involves a player interacting with a IBM PC compatible personal computer connected to a video monitor. A console game is played on a specialized electronic device that connects to a common television setor composite video monitor. A handheld gaming device is a self-contained electronic device that is portable and can be held in a users hands. Arcade game generally refers to a game played on an even more specialized type of electronic device that is typically designed to play only one game and is encased in a special cabinet. These distinctions are not always clear and there may be games that bridge one or more platforms. In addition to personal computers, there are multiple other devices which have the ability to play games but are not dedicated video game machines, such as mobile phones, PDAs and graphing calculators. With the advent of social networking and other online applications hubs, the term platform started being used to refer to the online service within which the game is played, regardless of the actual hardware on which it is executed. A games platform could simply be Facebook, whether it is played on a Windows PC, Mac, Smart TV, or smartphone. Statement of the problem : 1.) What is the negative effects of video games to teenager? 2.) What is the positive effects of video games to teenager? 3.) Does game violence make teens aggressive? Scope and limitation Development in technology brings many things that people dont have many years back. One of these things is online gaming that is provided by the internet. Online gaming is one of the widely used leisure activities by many people. Teenagers who are playing these online games said that they are playing these games just for fun, to keep away from the heat of the sun, without knowing that there are a lot of effects of playing these games that are more than what they think. Playing online games, according to some research is beneficial. It enables the mind of the players to be more active , especially those puzzle-based games. It helps the player to come up with decisions in tight situations, especially those adventure games that keep the players to be alert, active and strategic. Playing these types of games makes the player experienced different feelings because it is as if the player is really the one taking the challenges. Despite those benefits, playing these games also bring negative effects. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE RELATED LITERATURE â€Å"Computer Gaming Effects to the Academic Performance among High school students† The internet and online gaming industry has grown considerably over the past decade. As the advent of internet occurs, online gaming is undisputedly popular to the students and that online gaming has become high school students’ favorite leisure choice. Most of the High school students in these times are seen on internet sites and spending their money for them to be ready on their battle online. Because of this widespread, parents and educators are concerned about the doable effects on the academic performance among high school students. The most common question discusses about how it affects the academic performance of the gamer. Not surprisingly, gaming culture has become a polarizing force in our society, as well. â€Å"The Effects of Computer Games to the Academic Performance of Aims Students† Computer addiction is a relatively new term used to describe a dependency on one s computer. Computer addiction is not limited to personal computers (PCs). It covers video games and the Internet and has already been given a label by psychologists, namely Internet addiction disorder (IAD). People can grow addicted to a variety of substances, and there is usually a substantial amount of help available to treat them. Alcohol, drugs and sex have all been known to bring out the addictive personality trait in some people, but other forms of addictive behavior, such as exercise, watching television or spending too much time on a computer, have only recently been recognized. Computer addiction, like any addiction, can creep up on a person without one being aware of it. Talk shows are full of people whose relationships have been torn apart by one partners computer addiction. Spending hours chatting online, surfing the web or playing computer games can cause relationships to deteriorate as other parts of a person’s life are neglected.

Computer Fraud

Computer Fraud Task 1 (6.c)Importance and Effectiveness of Legal Regulation in Computer Fraud Introduction In todays world due to the advancement in the modern technology there has been always problem arising related with computers especially computer fraud misuse. People who are using computers are deceived in many ways like program fraud, system hacking, e-mail hoax, auction, retail sales, investment schemes, information hacking, virus/worm attacks and people claiming to be experts on subject areas. Anyone who uses the computer with an internet connection is a potential candidate for being a victim of computer fraud. The computer fraud rate is increasing every day as the internet usage among the people increases, most of the people are using the computers and internet for a good cause but there are some people who are intentionally using the computers to bring down some organizations or business firms or to get peoples personal information. But due to the implementation of current legal regulations in each and every fields; the crime people started to get tracked down and are punished under the Computer Misuse Act, which may ultimately reduce the number of computer fraud rate in the future. Background Over the past decades the amount of financial, military and intelligence information, business data and personal information is stored on and transmitted by computers has increased by tremendous growth. All the major sectors like government and military operations entirely depend upon computers / internet for their work process and data transmission. The information which is stored and transmitted via internet will be vulnerable to attack from any unknown source; almost every organization has been affected in some way due to the computer fraud. â€Å"The British National Computer Centre reported that more than 80% of British organizations suffered security threat in the last two years† [5], most of the investigation revealed that the computer fraud occurred involves unauthorised access to computers via the internet. The current growth in the technology suggest that within a decade it will be possible for every person in the world to access all the information network including the security defence data and government departments personal information but it is in the hand of the people to make sure that they do not misuse the available information. Other than the increase in the number of computer users, there will be also increase in the number of computers per person. Each person will own and connect to hundreds of computers for information processing through network environment. In the future all the people will use computers in home appliances, phones, televisions, offices and automobiles; all these computers share the information to optimize the use of resources and to provide convenience in daily life which might result in a threat for computer fraud. In this context we will discuss about the detailed term of * Computer fraud * Causes for computer fraud * Types of computer fraud/attacks * Basic ways to prevent computer fraud apart from legal regulation. * Importance / Effectiveness of the legal regulation in computer fraud. Computer Fraud Basically computer fraud is defined as taking control access illegally or stealing information without others knowledge, computer fraud can take place in any form; it includes fraud committed by an employee of a company using the computer to steal funds or information from the work company, whereas some people use deception to gain access to individual resources. Therefore the type and the method carried out to do the computer fraud vary from people to people depending upon the need to do it. Causes for computer fraud Most of the computer fraud is done for the main purpose of gaining money either by stealing the needed information from big organizations/firms or directly stealing funds from big organizations/firms. There are few people who are not concerned about the money or information but they wanted to bring down the fame of the organization/firm so they reveal all the secrets of the particular organization and few people like hackers does the computer fraud/crime just for a fun. Types of computer fraud Computer fraud can be classified into many types depending upon the fraud committed but the major categorisations of fraud are mentioned below. All the computer crime/fraud taking place now a day comes under these main categories. o Internet auction/Bid sales fraud o Retail sales o Investment schemes o Identity theft o Phising o Credit card fraud o Information hacking o Email hoax o Virus/Worm attack o Letter scam o Ad ware All these types of computer frauds are caused mainly due to the advancement in the technology and crime is still growing around the world. Basic ways to prevent computer fraud apart from legal regulation The most important thing to do to prevent computer fraud is to be alert to the scams that are circulated over the internet so that it helps to safeguard the system and the information stored within the system, there are some basic rules to be followed in order to prevent the system from computer fraud o Users should be aware of not to publish any of their personal details on the websites or forums. o The organization/firms should not broadcast much of their business details on the internet. o Organizations/firms should ensure that they follow security policies, and procedures. o People working at homes or organization should ensure that before sending any personal information on the net should check for valid signatures. Internet auction/bid sales fraud o Understand the way how the auction/bidding works on the internet, think what is the need for the seller to sell it. o Check out what will be actions taken by the online seller if something goes wrong during transaction and shipment. o Try to find more information about the seller; if the only information you have is the business email id, check the Better Business Bureau where the seller/business is located o Examine the sellers feedback on previous sales, if the seller has good history and good feedback on previous sales; then there is no need to worry about the purchase. o Determine what method of payment the seller is asking for during the transaction. o Be aware of the difference in laws governing auctions between the U.K. and other countries like U.S, China. If a problem occurs with the auction transaction that has the seller in one country and a buyer in another country, it might result in a dubious outcome leaving you empty handed. o Be sure to ask the seller about when delivery can be expected and warranty/exchange information for the product. o To avoid unexpected costs, find out whether shipping and delivery cost are included in the auction price or are additional. o Finally, avoid giving out your social security or drivers license number to the seller, as the sellers have no need for this information. Credit Card Fraud o Do not give out credit card number online unless the site is both secure and reputable. Sometimes a tiny icon of a padlock appears to symbolize a higher level of security to transmit data. The icon is not a guarantee of a secure site, but may provide you some assurance. o Before using the site, check out the security software it uses; make sure your information will be protected. o Make sure you are purchasing product from a reputable/legitimate source. Once again investigate the person or company before purchasing products. o Try to obtain a physical address rather than merely a post office box and a phone number, call the seller to see if the number is correct and working. o Send them e-mail to see if they have an active e-mail address and be cautious about the sellers who use free e-mail service where a credit card was not required to open the account. o Do not purchase from sellers who will not provide you with this type of information. o Check with the Better Business Bureau to see if there have been any complaints against the seller before. o Check out other web sites regarding this person/company details. o Be cautious when responding to special offers. o Be cautious when dealing with individuals/companies from outside your own country. o If you are going to purchase an item via the Internet, use a credit card since you can often dispute the charges if something does go wrong. o Make sure the transaction is secure when you electronically send your credit card somewhere. o You should keep a list of all your credit cards and account information along with the card issuers contact information. If anything looks suspicious or you lose your credit card contact the card issuer immediately. Investment Fraud o Do not invest in anything based on appearances. Just because an individual or company has a flashy web site does not mean it is legitimate. Web sites can be created in just a few days. After a short period of taking money, a site can vanish without a trace. o Do not invest in anything you are not absolutely sure about. Thoroughly investigate the individual or company to ensure that they are legitimate. o Check out other web sites regarding this person/company. o Be cautious when responding to special investment offers; inquire about all the terms and conditions dealing with the investors and the investment. Importance of the legal regulation in computer fraud After all the basic discussion about the concepts and the causes of computer fraud, we are going to discuss about the legal regulation issues related with the computer fraud which tells how the legal regulations prevent or reduce the increasing computer fraud rate in todays developing world of technology, Most of the law reform is achieved by modifying and extending existing law to cope with new situations rather than by the introduction of completely new legislation.This can sometimes make it difficult to find a single place where the whole of an area of law is clearly set out. The Computer Misuse Act was enacted in 1990 and it remains the primary piece of UK legislation focusing on the misuse of computer systems. It covers computer frauds such as hacking and the deliberate spread of viruses and was created to prevent unauthorized access or modification of computer systems and to prevent criminal elements from using a computer to assist in the commission of a criminal offence or fro m impairing or hindering access to data stored in a computer. â€Å"In 2004, MPs specifically, the All-Party Internet Group (APIG) began a review of the CMA, on the basis that this legislation was created before the emergence of the Internet and therefore required updating† [5]. The Act was seen to focus too much on individual computers and not enough on computer networks. In addition some of the definitions used in the 1990 Act need updating. The final report outlined several recommendations to the government for changes to the CMA. In March 2005, APIG called for amendments to the CMA to address the threat from denial of service attacks. The Computer Misuse Act was passed in 1990 to deal with the problem of hacking/other threats of computer systems. In the early days hacking/other computer fraud related issues was not taken very seriously by the law and the impression was that it is mischievous rather than something which causes serious loss to organizations. However, with developments in technology the issue has become more serious and legislation was introduced to recognize three key offences: o Unauthorized access to computer material, Example: Finding or guessing someones password and then using that to get into a computer system and have a look at the information. o Unauthorized access with intent to commit further offences. The key to this offence is the addition of intent to commit further offences. It therefore includes guessing or stealing a password and using that to access material or services without the consent of the owner. o Unauthorized modification of computer material. This could include deleting files, changing the desktop set-up or introducing viruses with the deliberate intent to impair the operation of a computer. Effectiveness of legal regulation in computer fraud ( Conclusion) All the above mentioned computer fraud issues was not taken seriously until the legal regulation was made properly, and due to the implementation of legal law of Computer Misuse Act, the effectiveness caused a tremendous change by punishing all the illegal users of the computer system. Below example shows the consequence for an ‘Unauthorized Access to system. Incident Unauthorized Access to Communications Systems Provision Computer Misuse Act Section 1 Description Cause a computer to perform any function with the intention of securing access to any program or data held in a computer, if this access is unauthorized and if this is known at the time of causing the computer to perform the function. Sanction A fine and/or a term of imprisonment not exceeding 6 months was sentenced for the illegal user. Total number of words in the Task1 report: 2500 Signed [ ] Task 2 (2)Do legal developments in law relating to Software copyright and Patents help or harm the cause of information system security Information system security acts as the protection of information system against unauthorized access or modification of existing information whether in storage, processing or transit stage. The information system ensures to safeguard all the stored information. Information security covers not just information but the entire infrastructures that facilitate access and use of information. The primary concern to organizations is the security of valuable information which can be anything from a formula to a customer list or organizations valuable information to financial statements. Three widely accepted elements of information system security are: o Confidentiality Ensuring information is only accessed by authorized users. o Integrity Safeguarding the accuracy and completeness of information. o Availability To ensure that authorized user have secure access to information when required. Law relating to Software Copyright and Patents In early 1970s there was a debate concerning about whether there is a need to make a copyright for the softwares or not, but later on it was decided that all the developed software needed to be copyrighted and if needed it can also be patented under the UK Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988. The UK law for copyright and patent helped the organizations from misuse of their developed softwares/concepts. Some organizations try to steal the concepts/parts of code from developed software of other organization and try to utilize them in their developing software product. But due to the software copyright and patent law, all the leading software organizations like ‘Microsoft started to make copyright for their parts of developed code, so that no other organizations can use their part of code for developing other applications, this helped most of the organizations to develop a unique software product. Legal requirement for Information Security Keeping valuable information secure is not only a matter of good organization practice it is also a legal requirement. Since 1999 in UK and most parts of the world, there is a statutory obligation on all organizations to maintain minimum levels of security. Organizations that fail to meet the minimum security requirements may face enforcement action by the UK Government via the Information Commissioners Office. â€Å"Enforcement action can take any form and the Information Commissioners powers are not limited. Organizations that want to be relatively safe can choose to implement BS7799† [2], that is a voluntary standard which helps to ensure that sensitive information is handled by an organization in a professional and secure manner, it can done by making the organization to classify the sensitivity of information and to provide necessary control access to it. Legal developments in laws relating to software copyright and patents ‘help the information system security (Conclusion) As discussed earlier, the main work of information system security is to provide a secure environment for the information storage and processing, in the past decades when there was no legal laws for software copyright and patents, hackers used to break the information system and get the needed information/softwares; they are not really afraid of anything because there was not any law stating that taking/hacking the softwares/information was a crime which caused a big problem for the software developing organizations but now due to the development of legal laws; if a person tries to hack the information system security, he can be sentenced to prison due to the current state of law. So the development of the legal laws relating to software copyright and patents did help the information system security to make a secure environment. Total number of words in the Task2 report: 500 Signed [ ] Task 3 (4)Evaluate the proposition that Data protection laws are an unnecessary burden on legitimate public and commercial data collection The Data Protection Act was originally started on 1984 but later the existing act was replaced by the new Data Protection Act of 1998[DPA 1998], the â€Å"new act of 1998 implemented the EU Data protection Directive 95/46† [3]. The DPA relates to the protection of personal information that includes names, email addresses, financial details, personal documents and photographs. Personal information is everywhere and because it is generally impossible to separate personal information from other organizations information, most observers agree that the security standards required by the Data Protection Act are the minimum that must be applied to organization IT Systems as a whole. The security of information is so important to most organizations that, regardless of what the law require, organizations generally implement levels of security that are as high as budgets and technology. Data Protection Act of 1998—Personal Data Security The main legal requirements are set out in Principle 7 of the Data Protection Act 1998 says that all organizations must take â€Å"Appropriate technical and organizational measures against unauthorized or unlawful use and against accidental loss, damage or destruction, of information.† [4] Today, all computerized processing of personal data, structured manual records, and even some unstructured manual records are subject to provisions of the DPA 1998, including the right of the individual to access the data which is held about them. Together with the Freedom of Information Act 2000 (FOIA 2000), the DPA 1998 has forced a re-think of organizations good practice in personal data handling, new approaches to records management and made organizations consider more carefully their obligations to those whose data they hold. The FOIA 2000 extends the rights of the individual to access their data which had already existed under the DPA 1998. The definition of data is widened, as far as public authorities are concerned; to include all other recorded information held by a public authority. However, there are limits to the data subject rights that apply to this additional category of data. A request by an individual for information about him or herself is exempt under the FOIA 2000 and should be handled as a subject access request under the DPA 1998. In certain circumstances such a request may involve the release of associated information in which case the provisions of sections 7(4) and (5) of the DPA 1998 should be used to determine whether it is appropriate to release the third party information. Where an applicant specifically requests information about a third party or where responding to a request for information would involve the disclosure of personal information about a third party which is not also personal information about the applicant, the request falls within the remit of the FOIA 2000. However, the authority must apply the Data Protection Principles when considering the disclosure of information relating to individuals. An authority must not release third party information if to do so would mean breaching one of the Principles. Conclusion Even though the DPA secures the users personal information/data, there are some problems/burden exist for the legitimate users/public facing the Data Protection Act, according to DPA there is no exemption for back-up of data/information. In practice it will be unlikely that a data subject want access to data back-up and there is nothing to prevent a controller confirming that a data subject wishes to access only the most recent records. The back-up data which provides that automated data processed to replace other data which has been lost, destroyed or impaired are exempt from section 7 during the first transitional period ending on 23 October 2001; but this is not a general exemption for back-up data in the traditional sense. Total number of words in the Task3 report: 500 Signed [ ] Bibliography o Andrew Terrett., The Internet, Business Strategies for Law firms, (2000, Law Society, London) o Bobbie Johnson., ‘UK computer laws are ridiculous, April 30, http://technology.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,,1763989,00.html o ‘Computer Fraud and its Acts, April 30, http://www.itwales.com/999573.htm o ‘Concepts of Patent work, May 1, http://www.patent.gov.uk/about/consultations/conclusions.htm o ‘Data protection effect on senior management, May 2, http://www.jisc.ac.uk/index.cfm?name=pub_smbp_dpa1998 o ‘Data protection law, The key change, May 1, http://webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/1998/issue4/widdis4.html o David Icove. and Karl Seger, Computer Crime, (1995, OReilly Associates, USA) o David S. Wall., Cyberspace Crime, (2003, Darmouth Publishing Company , Hants, England) o Douglas Thomas. and Brian Loader, Cyber crime, (2000, Routledge publication , London) o ‘Facts on copyright, May 1, http://www.intellectual-property.gov.uk/faq/copyright/what.htm o ‘Fraud law reforms, April 30, http://www.bcs.org/server.php?show=conWebDoc.1149 o ‘Fraud Tips, April 30, http://www.fraud.org/internet/intset.htm o ‘Hacking and other computer crime, April 30, http://www.met.police.uk/computercrime/#SO6 o Ian Lloyd., Information Technology Law, (1997, Reed Elsevier Ltd, Halsbury, London) o Joshua Rozenberg., Privacy and the Press, (2005, Oxford university press Inc , USA) o Michael Levi., Regulating Fraud, (1987, Tavistock Publication , London) o ‘New laws for computer fraud, April 30, http://www.thisismoney.co.uk/news/article.html?in_article_id=400895in_page_id=2 o ‘Summary of Intellectual property rights, May 1, http://www.copyrightservice.co.uk/copyright/intellectual_property o Susan Singleton., Data protection The New Law, (1998, Jordans Publication , Bristol) o ‘UK Data protection laws are chaotic, May 2, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/11/17/data_protection_laws_chaotic/

Circadian Rhythms: Experiment :: essays research papers

Circadian Rhythms: Experiment Circadian Rhythms are the times of day that you get either hungry, tired, or energetic. This paper is to describe an experiment that I have thought up that will test to see if circadian rhythms differ from people who perceive themselves as night-time people and people who perceive themselves as morning people. What is your hypothesis?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My hypothesis is that night-time people's circadian rhythms are extremely different than morning people's circadian rhythms. What population are you going to study? How will you sample this population?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Participants for my experiment will be ninety-nine undergraduate female students from Iowa State University. Prior to the experiment all participants will have to fill out a questionnaire. This questionnaire will primarily determine if they feel themselves as being either morning or night types of people. Subjects for my experiment will be randomly chosen from these questionnaires. I will select three night-time people and three morning-time people. I will then give each of them a journal. In this journal each subject will write in it the time that they become hungry, or the time that they became tired. They will do this for three days. At the end of the three days they will come back to my laboratory. They will then be put in an isolation booths. In one of the booths there will be a clock that doesn't have the right time on it. In another one there will be a window so that they can see where the sun is. In the third one there will be no windows and no clocks. All they would have is a light bulb in the ceiling. All the booths will have a bed and a bright red button on the far wall. The button will be for ringing. They will ring when they are tired, hungry, or need to use the facilities. My assistants and I will record when they become hungry and when they become tired. They will be in this room for three days. At the end of the three days my assistants and I will make sure that they are all right and can return to the world unharmed. What is your independent variable(s)? What is your dependent variable? How will you measure the dependent variable?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My independent variable will be one of the three that I give a clock and another one that I give a view of where the sun is. The dependent variable will be the one that will be completely isolated. Without sunlight they will not know what time it is and therefore not know when to become tired or hungry.

Barriers of Effective Communication

Describe the barriers of effective communication. Introduction: If an individual (Sender) sends a message and the receiver interprets it in the same way as the sender had intended to express,the process of communication is said to be complete. But it is not always so. Certain barriers in communication affect the clarity, accuracy and effectiveness of the message. The barriers could be related to the communication system, mechanical devices being used, language or symbols being used for encoding, the sender and the receiver himself. There exist many barriers to communication and these may occur at any stage in the communication process.Barriers may lead to your message becoming distorted and you therefore risk wasting both time and money by causing confusion and misunderstanding. Effective communication involves overcoming these barriers and conveying a clear and concise message. Below are some common barriers to effective communication include: †¢ Physical Barriers: this has to do with poor or outdated equipment used during communications. Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment like background noise, poor lighting, temperatures that are too hot or too cold which in turn interfere with effective communication. Organizational Barriers: System design faults refer to problems with the structures or systems in place in an organization. This happens due to the physical distance between the sender and the receiver due to their task, power, and authority and status relationship. examples could be inefficient or inappropriate information systems, a lack of supervision or training, and a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities which can lead to staff being uncertain about what is expected of them. †¢ Ambiguity of words/phrases or Semantic Barriers:Different people assign different meanings to one specific message. Hence the communicator must ensure that the receiver receives the same meaning. It is better if such words are avoide d by using alternatives whenever possible. †¢ Attitudes or Interpersonal Barriers: Another main barrier is the fear and mistrust that form the roots of our emotional barrier which stop us from communicating effectively with our co-workers. These are based upon relationships, values held and attitudes of the members involved.Shortage of time for subordinates, lack of trust, can be a major hurdle in effective communication. emotions like anger or sadness can taint objectivity. Also being extremely nervous,having a personal agenda can make communications less than effective. †¢ Cross cultural/ Geographical Barriers: This barrier arises due to time, geographic locations and the effect of time upon reception of the message. Social relationships, words, colors, symbols concepts of time and space and perception are barriers peculiar to different cultures. Language Barriers: this can seem like an easy one, but even people speaking the same language can have difficulty understandin g each other if they are from different generations or from different regions of the same country. Slang, professional jargon and regional colloquialisms can even hurt communicators with the best intentions. †¢ Information Overload: it takes time to process a lot of information and too many details can overwhelm and distract the audience from the important topics. Keep it Simple and short. Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject: If the sender lacks specific information about something, the receiver will likely receive an unclear or mixed message. For example: Have you shopped for an item such as a computer, and experienced how some salespeople can explain complicated terms and ideas in a simple way ? Others cannot. †¢ Lack of Basic Communication Skills: The receiver is less likely to understand the message if the sender has trouble choosing the precise words needed and arranging those words in a grammatically-correct sentence. Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver: A breakdown in communication may result when a message is not adapted to its receiver. Recognizing the receiver’s needs, status, knowledge of the subject, and language skills assists the sender in preparing a successful message. one can improve effective organizational communication is by changing one’s thoughts and feelings with one’s colleague. In this way, we don’t just break down communication barriers, but also build relationships that work successfully for long.

Economic Reform essays

Economic Reform essays The Great Depression was the worst economic slump ever in U.S. history. It ranked as the worst and longest period of high unemployment and low business activity in modern times. The depression began in late 1929 and lasted for about a decade. Many factors led to the onset and continuation of the depression; however, the main cause for the Great Depression was the combination of uneven distribution of wealth throughout the 1920's, and the extensive stock market speculation that took place later during the same decade. Money was distributed intermittently between the rich and the middle-class, between industry and agriculture within the United States, and between the U.S. and Europe. This imbalance of wealth created an unstable economy. Other factors included overproduction and Americans not receiving wages to purchase those goods, foreign tariffs, and the federal reserves tight money polices. Not only was the United states being affected by the economy, the people were as well. The excessive speculation in the late 1920's kept the stock market artificially high, but eventually lead to large market crashes. Black Thursday became known to Americans on October 24th of 1929. Thousands of stockholders lost large sums of money. Many of these stockholders were even wiped out. Banks, factories, and stores closed and left millions of Americans jobless and penniless. During this period, Americans lost their money from banks shutting down because their money was not ensured. As the losses added up, suicide, violence, and divorce rates sky rocketed. During the Great Depression, radio brought Americans together in a mental aspect. Every Saturday night families would gather around to listen to President Roosevelts fire side chats. Since television was not invented yet, Roosevelt would give speeches over the radio to keep Americans updated on what was going on in Ameri ...

Lockes Government essays

Lockes Government essays The Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson, and The Second Treatise on Civil Government by John Locke, are two similar works. Lockes work seems to have had an influence on Jefferson when he wrote the Declaration of Independence. Both works were written on government, what it should and should not be. Locke brings the view that the state exists to preserve the natural rights of its citizens. When governments fail in that task, citizens have the rightand sometimes the dutyto withdraw their support and event to rebel. Locke maintained that the state of nature was a happy and tolerant one, that the social contract preserved the preexistent natural rights of the individual to life, liberty, and property, and that the enjoyment of private rights the pursuit of happiness led, in civil society, to the common good. Lockes form of government is simple, yet confusing. Lockes government is broken down into four main areas, the State of Nature ( SN ), the State of War ( SW ), Civil Society ( CS ), and Political Society ( PS ). Locke begins by recognizing the differences between power, in general, and political power in particular. Locke believes political power to be, the power of a magistrate over a subject. (2) The subject remains under the magistrates rule by choice. This brings about the State of Nature. The SN is a state of perfect freedom, no one is controlling others and no one is being controlled, everyone is equal. Locke comes to say that the only way someone can rule over us is if we let them. By doing this we are not abandoning our SN, but remaining in it. It is ones choice to let another preside over them. Our SN is threatened though because we do not have complete control, therefore we come into the State of War. Under SW we have taken away others SN or given up our own. For us to get it back we ...

Istoria scrisului si a tiparului Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers

Istoria scrisului si a tiparului Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers Istoria scrisului si a tiparului Scrierea, cifrele, suportul pentru scriere i uneltele de scris toate produse ale minii omeneti continu s ocupe un loc important n toate domeniile de activitate i n toate manifestrile culturale i tiinifice. De-a lungul istoriei, popoarele au inventat diferite semne cu ajutorul crora notau fapte, ntmplri, idei. Obiecte simbolice, cum sunt o pasre, un oarece, o sgeat i o broasc, menionate de Herodot,alctuiau mesajul sciilor ctre Darius, regele perilor, cnd a pornit expediia mpotriva lor. i astzi sunt cunoscute semne simbolice, ca porumbelul alb a lui Picasso flamura alb ridicat pe front i altele. Semnele mnemonice, de asemenea sisteme primitive de scriere, care au fost ntlnite n multe pri ale lumii, sunt prezentate de nodurile de sfoar, rboj etc. Pictografia i ideografia au permis oamenilor s dea unui desen o valoare aproximativ fonetic, ajungnd la un pas de alfabet. Ideografia n zilele noastre este reprezentat de semnele de circulaie, semnele de aritmetic, chimie, astronomie etc. Scrierea hieroglif egiptean a fost descifrat abia n anul 1822 de ctre Champollion. Acest scriere era constituit dintr-un complex de semne format din psri, animale , flori, peti etc., ce erau aternute pe papirus de scribi aflai n poziie eznd, cu picioarele ncruciate i cu tblia sprijinit pe genunchi. Scrierea hieratic egiptean se realiza de la dreapta spre stnga. Scrierea cuneiform, folosit prin anul 3100 .d.Hr. prin locurile n care astzi este Kuweitul, era constituit din semne de forma unor cuie i se practica de obicei stnd n picioare, cu tblia n mna stng. Instrumentul de scriere era o bucat de trestie sau un lemn rotund ascuit, iar scrierea se citea de la stnga la dreapta. Vechea scriere chinez este o scriere ideografic ce s-a pstrat pn n zilele noastre. Direcia de scriere pe acelai rnd era de sus n jos, iar rndurile se succedau de la dreapta la stnga. Sensul unui cuvnt n limba vorbit se schim dup poziia sa n cuprinsul frazei, dup gestul care-l nsoete i dup nlimea muzical a tonului. Dicionarul realizat prin secolul XV-XVI d.Hr. coninea 44440 de ideograme. Treptat numrul lor a fost redus, iar n prezent se scrie pe orizontal, concomitent cu popularizarea noului alfabet cu litere latine. Scrieri ideografice mai sunt i cele folosite n Insula Petelui, scrierea Maya etc. Scrierea silabic a devenit posibil cnd nivelul cultural a fost mai ridicat i spiritul de observaie mai accentuat. Astfel s-a ajuns s se neleag c un cuvnt este format din sunete ce se pronun printr-o singur deschidere a buzelor, deci n silabe. Desigur, astfel se reduce numrul semnelor i scrierea devine accesibil unui cerc mai larg de oameni.n aceast categorie intr scrierile japonez, cipriot .a. Alfabetul este urmarea fireasc a unei ndelungate evoluii, cel fenician avnd meritul de a fi dat natere tuturor scrierilor alfabetice n general. Scrierea cursiv fenician, care a aprut pe la nceputul anului 500 .d.Hr., se realiza cu ajutorul a 22 de semne pe tblie de calcar, ulcioare sau papirus, de la dreapta la stnga pe orizontal. Datorit legturilor comerciale ale fenicienilor, alfabetul s-a raspndit din apus pn n rsritul ndeprtat, aprnd alte tipuri de scrieri, cu diferenieri pronunate fa de cea fenician, aa cum le cunoatem i astzi: scrierile siriene, alfabetul ebraic, scrierea brahmi, alfabetul arab etc. Alfabetul consonantic i vocalic grecesc dovedete cert originea sa fenician prin ordinea literelor, formelor apropiate i semne deosebite pentru vocale. Construcia literelor greceti a evoluat continuu, pentru ca n secolul V .d.Hr. s fie adoptat un alfabet complet. n secolul al IV- lea .d.Hr. apare forma cursiv, cu trasare mai rapid, apar legturile ntre litere i scrierea livreasc, ce d natere literelor minuscule aproape de forma actual. Acelai secol aduce semnul de sfrit de propoziie, care era format din dou puncte, iar ca semn de ntrebare punctul i virgula. Alfabetul latin a aprut ca o variant a celui grecesc. Introdus prin intermediul etruscilor, alfabetul latin s-a impus destul de repede, adaptarea fiind uoar, limba latin avnd mai puine consoane dect greaca. Din alfabetele grecei arhaice au fost preluate sunete, unele au fost modificate, altele reaezate. n locul vechilor denumiri, latinii au desemnat literele dup sunetul lor. Ca i grecii, vechii romani foloseau foloseau n scrierea monumental numai litere capitale, din care au derivat literele mari de tipar. Minusculele au aprut abia n secolul al V-lea d.Hr., dezvoltndu-se diferit

Alternative Education Options 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Alternative Education Options 2 - Essay Example The school’s goal is to cost effectively attend to the needs of the school, enhance the environment and provide students with the platform to develop their skills and gain educational success. The set, benedict school philosophy is based on the 15000 year old Benedictine tradition. The school program differs from the other normal school programs in that its year is divided into summer phase, winter and spring phases. In summer the students gather for a five week program of till midday class while the freshmen have their five day classes overnight.in winter students have the regular school days and there is routine to the gym at 9:15 every morning. The spring phase concludes the academic year and students choose projects to work on for a period of four weeks. The school has firm discplinary policies. The school has about 18 groups with 20-30 members in each group where members are supposed to meet each day, participate in competitions as group and play an active role in operating the school. They are all responsible for each other. The student ratio is 13:1 a very effective structure. The school is run by the senior group leader, a beginning leader and four section leaders that cooperate in attaining the mission of the school. There is a great degree in uniformity in the school. They pray according to catholic programs and sing songs with the whole community in attendance. The student’s dress code acceptability is addressed by the headmaster and senior group leader and they have the right to authorize change at any time. Beginners wear gray and hoodies while members wear black. Students are not allowed to wear: hats, head-bands, ear muffs, gloves and may only wear one stud earring type. Sagging and hanging jewelry is not allowed. Black and brown Shoes should have no more than an inch heel and must be properly worn and tied. Any different form of shoe or dress is not acceptable. Family dynamics are intensely integrated in the school

It Week8 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

It Week8 - Assignment Example However, the old network, IPv4, cannot be done away with until the transition period is complete (Venkata et al., 2012). The benefits that IPv6 offers surpass the limitations that IPv4 has. For instance, the new IPv6 makes it possible to have a plethora of IP addresses as opposed to IPv4. The burgeoning protocol has 128 bit addresses as compared to IPv4, which only has 32 bit addresses. The bit addresses that IPv6 uses enable the availability of numerous IP addresses. In addition to this, IPv6 eradicates the need for network address translation (NAT) which is present in IPv4 resulting in better peer-peer networks connectivity. Further, IPv4 presents security issues, which IPv6 eliminates as it promotes interoperability between myriad implementations (Venkata et al., 2012). Venkata, P., Reddy, P., Mohammed, K., Ali, I., Sandeep, B., & Ravi, T. (2012). Importance and benefits of IPV6 over IPV4†¯: a study. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 2(12), 1-2. Data Definition Language (DDL) refers to statements that define the schema or database structure. For instance, CREATE – creates objects, ALTER – alters the database structure, DROP – deletes objects, COMMENT – adds comments to the dictionary of date, and RENAME – Renames database objects. DML refers to Data Manipulation Language, which are simply statements that manage data within schematic objects. For instance, SELECT – helps in retrieving data, UPDATE – updates data already present in a table, and CALL – Calls Java or PL/SQL. Data Control Language (DCL) includes commands such as GRANT. It mostly deals with permissions, rights, and additional controls of the database. SQL Server 2012 relies on the above SQL commands for interaction. Transact-SQL presents as central in sending and receiving communication with the SQL server (Microsoft, 2006). Distributed File System (DFS) enables administrators to make a group of shared

Engineering ethics Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Engineering ethics - Case Study Example Within any given integrated work place, a coherent code of conduct is used to manage behavioral conduct of employees. This code of conduct outlines the principles and values required of every employee when conducting any duty within a  social setting. Apart from laws and the code of conduct, ethics determine the professional behavioral pattern demonstrated by employees. Ethics relate to an individual’s philosophical principles and beliefs. Ethical practices involve adoption of elements like honesty, loyalty, commitment and avoidance of conflict of interest in professional duties. In any professional training, an individual is informed of the required ethical elements which all employees working in a certain professional accord should follow. At this juncture, we will begin by appraising the code of conduct that defines ethical principles required of engineers. Engineering, which is mostly concerned with the welfare of the society, should depict high levels of ethics in its a pplication. Therefore, engineers should display ethical conduct in every activity pertaining to their profession. With respect to the underlying case study, Giffels faces a dilemma situation where he is required to make an ethical decision within the line of duty. Before we begin evaluating Giffels’ case from a theoretical perspective, it is appropriate that we acknowledge some of the ethical requirements of every engineer in the field. From the NSPE, which outline the code of ethics for engineers, engineers have a professional obligation of informing his/her clients when they belief that a certain project has some defects. In addition, engineers should not engage in activities that serve to advance their professional status by untruthfully presenting information about projects. According to the rule of practice, engineers should prioritize safety, health and the general welfare of the public in all professional duties. When charged with a responsibility of approving a projec t, engineers should only approve projects that conform to the applicable engineering standards. Moreover, every engineer should carry out professional assignments with the highest standards of honesty and integrity. At this juncture, acknowledgement of these ethical principles facilitates appraisal of Giffels’ case in an objective manner. Relevant theories concerned with ethical standards will prove helpful in understanding professional ethics from a theoretical perspective. The underlying case concerns an engineer faced with a situation requiring an ethical decision making process. Giffels has a professional duty of installing equipment in a government facility. However, this facility does not meet the required engineering standards in its constructions. Giffels notice that the responsible designer did not consider the issue of safety in terms of fire and escape routes in the facility. In addition, the designer did not submit details on how Giffels should install the require d equipments with respect to the issues of safety. Giffels evaluated this situation from an ethical perspective. Although his duty was to install the equipments, he considered the aspect of public safety in the project. This made Giffels consider approaching the concerned parties for assistance. The designer rejected his claim saying that Giffels duty is to complete the

Super Format and Rapid Development of TV Formats Essay

Super Format and Rapid Development of TV Formats - Essay Example Additionally, with the increase in demand, a lot of investors came up with new ideas that saw the production of programs to match the demands of the customers in the markets. On the other hand, exploiters came up with the idea of exploiting the novel entrepreneurs with the idea of coming up with interesting and catchy programs that would sell and attract the attention of many individuals in the market. Moran & Malbon (2006) indicate that, with the advent of the digital technology, the global TV market indicated developments in coming up with a digital TV channel, that was directed to the consumers; thus, massive profits were indicated by the investors in the industry. TV super formats According to the research conducted by Ward (2003), TV super formats can be referred to as the elements that are in various ways completely invariable, and in which other programs are derived from. This basically refers to the derivation of many programs from a singular element, as a result of manipulat ion of systems to come up with a new program. TV super formats are, therefore, concepts derived from an original program that are reproduced in another for a different audience. With the right documentation these TV formats can be sold internationally for the original concepts to be replicated in other countries. Right documentation, here, refers to trading licenses between the seller and the buyer of the formats (Ward, 2003). With a lot of competition being experienced in the TV and broadcasting industry, there was a dire need by the broadcasting markets to diversify the rules of governing the broadcasting markets. In the long run, trade in the TV broadcasting saw the inclusion of many more traders; thus many players in the industry (Chalaby, 2011). Rapid development of TV formats Private channels Many parts of the world have experienced an upward trend in the number of channels airing programs. Research by Holmes and Jermyn (2004) shows that in prior years, national channels domin ated the television sets in various countries, whereby viewers had no choice but to view whatever programs were aired. However, this trend took a dramatic change with the privatization of channels in many countries. In their quest to win over the viewers, these channels went looking for interesting and catchy programs to draw the interest of the viewers. The most viable way to do this was to concentrate on format programs. With time, privately owned television networks increased in number and completion for audiences was rife, with each trying its best to attract as many audiences as possible. In most cases, national broadcasters lagged behind in the completion for viewership, as they did not want to air programs that supported other nation’s talents and capabilities. The battle, therefore, was among the privately owned television channels. This completion fuelled the rise and spread of format TV. The investors and entrepreneurs in of these privately owned channels are, there fore, the catalysts for the rise in TV formats. Audience Audiences all over the globe have shown a particular liking to TV format programs over original ones. According to Holmes (2004) the concept of TV formats cannot be alienated from a discussion of the communication industry as far as television is concerned. Television formats are vital in the case of journalists and viewers of

Mediums of painting, sculpture, or architecture Essay

Mediums of painting, sculpture, or architecture - Essay Example In today’s world there are many mediums for painting being used by an Artist. Some of the medium includes oil tempera, oil paints, gouache, pastels, water colors and acrylic. Acrylic paint has a quality that it takes little time to get dry and contains pigments which can easily be diluted with water. Pastels have three different forms, the hard, soft and pastel pencils. Amongst which, the soft pastels are widely used by artists because it has the pigments are at a higher portion but has less binder. Hard pastels contain high binding quality but with less pigments and pastel pencils are pencils which contain lead. Tempera is a medium which consists of colored pigments and allow greater precision for the artist. Water colors need water to show their true color and then become transparent. Therefore, other mediums are used with water colors in order to give special effect. As so rightly described by Nicolas Poussin that â€Å"Painting is the lover of beauty and the queen of the arts†, I am greatly attracted towards painting but the medium which I dearly like is Tempera. This is because the medium provides an artist with smooth matte finish and its history can be found in early Egyptian sarcophagi in which they use to decorate mummy portraits. In this medium egg is been used as a binding force which is mostly used in canvas or wood panels. Unlike paints, the color would not change when it dries up and it would not even grow transparent over time.The paper explores the relationship between an artist and a patron.

English class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

English class - Essay Example articles and journals that support this motion while drawing reference to The Constitution of the United States of America and supports the idea that the drinking age ought to be lowered. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 highlights the ethical benefits of setting the minimum drinking age of the American population at 21. Although some states have completely instituted a ban on the consumption, purchase and handling of drinks to the minimum age required, others allow them although under tight restrictions. The national law in specific requires all state laws to prohibit public possession of alcoholic beverages by minors. However, the public possession law does not apply to possession of beverages in religious functions, while in the company of adults and parents who are older than 21 years. The law also does not term it as a crime when a medical practitioner such as a physician, doctor or nurse prescribes an alcoholic drink to a patient. It is also not illegal for a minor to possess and consume alcoholic beverages in a private function. Some observers point out the illogic of the age according to decision making process. Constitutionally, any person who h as attained the age of 18 is regarded as an adult and has a right to vote in national elections. An adult according to the law is a person who can make informed decisions and be accountable to the government. There should be no special application of the bill of rights to this class of people when it comes to drinking laws. An adult is an adult, so long as constitutionally one is perceived to be capable of making informed judgments. Thus, the law ought to be repealed to lower the age to 18. According to Zimmer and Hatch (n.p.), the law prohibiting the sale and consumption of alcoholic drinks to persons of 18 years has failed. Many arguments have been raised on the impracticability of the issue. Zimmer and Hatch, (n.p.) compares the alcohol related problems of America and the united kingdom and comes

Super Format and Rapid Development of TV Formats Essay

Super Format and Rapid Development of TV Formats - Essay Example Additionally, with the increase in demand, a lot of investors came up with new ideas that saw the production of programs to match the demands of the customers in the markets. On the other hand, exploiters came up with the idea of exploiting the novel entrepreneurs with the idea of coming up with interesting and catchy programs that would sell and attract the attention of many individuals in the market. Moran & Malbon (2006) indicate that, with the advent of the digital technology, the global TV market indicated developments in coming up with a digital TV channel, that was directed to the consumers; thus, massive profits were indicated by the investors in the industry. TV super formats According to the research conducted by Ward (2003), TV super formats can be referred to as the elements that are in various ways completely invariable, and in which other programs are derived from. This basically refers to the derivation of many programs from a singular element, as a result of manipulat ion of systems to come up with a new program. TV super formats are, therefore, concepts derived from an original program that are reproduced in another for a different audience. With the right documentation these TV formats can be sold internationally for the original concepts to be replicated in other countries. Right documentation, here, refers to trading licenses between the seller and the buyer of the formats (Ward, 2003). With a lot of competition being experienced in the TV and broadcasting industry, there was a dire need by the broadcasting markets to diversify the rules of governing the broadcasting markets. In the long run, trade in the TV broadcasting saw the inclusion of many more traders; thus many players in the industry (Chalaby, 2011). Rapid development of TV formats Private channels Many parts of the world have experienced an upward trend in the number of channels airing programs. Research by Holmes and Jermyn (2004) shows that in prior years, national channels domin ated the television sets in various countries, whereby viewers had no choice but to view whatever programs were aired. However, this trend took a dramatic change with the privatization of channels in many countries. In their quest to win over the viewers, these channels went looking for interesting and catchy programs to draw the interest of the viewers. The most viable way to do this was to concentrate on format programs. With time, privately owned television networks increased in number and completion for audiences was rife, with each trying its best to attract as many audiences as possible. In most cases, national broadcasters lagged behind in the completion for viewership, as they did not want to air programs that supported other nation’s talents and capabilities. The battle, therefore, was among the privately owned television channels. This completion fuelled the rise and spread of format TV. The investors and entrepreneurs in of these privately owned channels are, there fore, the catalysts for the rise in TV formats. Audience Audiences all over the globe have shown a particular liking to TV format programs over original ones. According to Holmes (2004) the concept of TV formats cannot be alienated from a discussion of the communication industry as far as television is concerned. Television formats are vital in the case of journalists and viewers of

English class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

English class - Essay Example articles and journals that support this motion while drawing reference to The Constitution of the United States of America and supports the idea that the drinking age ought to be lowered. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 highlights the ethical benefits of setting the minimum drinking age of the American population at 21. Although some states have completely instituted a ban on the consumption, purchase and handling of drinks to the minimum age required, others allow them although under tight restrictions. The national law in specific requires all state laws to prohibit public possession of alcoholic beverages by minors. However, the public possession law does not apply to possession of beverages in religious functions, while in the company of adults and parents who are older than 21 years. The law also does not term it as a crime when a medical practitioner such as a physician, doctor or nurse prescribes an alcoholic drink to a patient. It is also not illegal for a minor to possess and consume alcoholic beverages in a private function. Some observers point out the illogic of the age according to decision making process. Constitutionally, any person who h as attained the age of 18 is regarded as an adult and has a right to vote in national elections. An adult according to the law is a person who can make informed decisions and be accountable to the government. There should be no special application of the bill of rights to this class of people when it comes to drinking laws. An adult is an adult, so long as constitutionally one is perceived to be capable of making informed judgments. Thus, the law ought to be repealed to lower the age to 18. According to Zimmer and Hatch (n.p.), the law prohibiting the sale and consumption of alcoholic drinks to persons of 18 years has failed. Many arguments have been raised on the impracticability of the issue. Zimmer and Hatch, (n.p.) compares the alcohol related problems of America and the united kingdom and comes

Unknown Citizen Essay Example for Free

Unknown Citizen Essay Social Security Number? Birthdate? Nine digit telephone number starting with area code? In many ways, we are simply numbers to modern society, not individuals with feelings and emotions and dreams. As the world around us evolves so does technology. With the fast paced advancements occurring in technology it seems that the humanity of the world is decreasing. This makes it harder for people to develop their own personal identity. In today’s society people are being seen more as â€Å"faceless† citizens rather than individuals. This is because they are given numbers and labeled based upon how society sees them. In â€Å"The Unknown Citizen†, W. H. Auden shows us how the government sees society as statistics rather than a group of individuals. The unknown citizen of Auden’s poem is unknown because his name has become unimportant. The subtitle â€Å"To JS/07/M/378 This Marble Monument is Erected by the State (Auden 864)† is a fictional concept that the government enforced by an alpha-numeric tag. This tag is used to distinguish who each person is. Throughout the poem the individual is being referred to as â€Å"JS/07/M/378†. The random letters and numbers followed by forward slashes are all representations of the government. Meaning each section of letters and numbers are representing something. â€Å"JS† could possibly be the first letters of his first and last name and â€Å"M† could represent his gender being male. However, the fact that his name is never mentioned and a marble statue was built in his honor in very ironic. Instead of writing his full name the government chose to use the name they had given to him. This automatically is seen as a form of dehumanizing. The statue can also be seen as a form of symbolism representing the chilling manner in which the government chose to honor this man. Auden gives the audience the perceptive that the government is honoring people who they never knew really existed while they were alive. Auden uses irony to describe how the unknown citizen was seen by the government. â€Å"He was found by the Bureau of Statistics to be one against, who there was no official complaint, and all the reports on his conduct agree (Auden 864)†, is an ironic way to start off portraying him. The Bureau of Statistics is a fictional sector of the government that finds people and categorizes them based upon facts and figures. This suggests that tatistically speaking he would be considered normal. â€Å"That in the modern sense of an old-fashioned word, he was a saint for in everything he did he served the Greater Community (Auden 864)† is another perfect example of irony. A saint in an old-fashioned sense is someone who actually stands alone to defend their beliefs and often perish while trying to overcome those enormous challenges. This life is normally seen as an extraordinary one. A saint can also be used in reference when referring to religion. However, Auden suggests that the modern saint is the complete opposite. The unknown citizen lived a life in which he was not devoted to God but to a Greater Community. The government would be considered the Greater Community. It is almost like Auden gives the government godlike qualities because they believe everyone should follow what they say. He always acted in a manner that was expected or accepted by this society. Even though Auden sounds like he is praising all of the unknown citizen’s accomplishments he truly is not. He goes on to say â€Å"he was popular with his mate† and â€Å"he was fully sensible† to show how conformed he was to society. He also followed all rules passed by the state. The way he lived his life was considered normal. He brought a paper every day and reacted in the â€Å"normal† way expected. Advertisers benefited from this because they gained statistics of their own allowing them to help their business profit. He never got involved with his children’s education allowing the government to have more control over him. â€Å"When there was peace he was for peace; when there was war, he went (Auden 865)† suggests he had no mind of his own. This man never questioned anything himself but, instead followed everyone else. Not once did he take a second out to think about something on his own. If the government said it is right then he went along with it. â€Å"He worked in a factory and never got fired, but satisfied his employers Fudge Motors Inc. Yet he wasn’t a scab or odd in his views for his Union reports that he paid his dues (Auden 864-865)† shows that his performance was based upon how his employer felt. Fudge Motors Inc. would be a parody for Ford Motors Inc. He basically dehumanized himself just so he could please the state. Auden intentionally wrote this poem in a very clinical way to make a point about how flawed the government is. Auden compares the Eugenics from the odern society to the Nazi’s in Germany. â€Å"He was married and added five children to the population which our Eugenist says was the right number for a parent of his generation (Auden 865)† can be used as connection between the two. The Nazi’s were known mainly for trying to create the perfect society. From this it is possible that Auden could be suggesting that with conformity comes chaos. Auden wrote â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† during World War II leaving the perception that maybe he wrote it about an unknown citizen who served in the war and warning the soldiers to question the government who are sending them out to fight. He points out that the government judge people based off of reports and documents and what they considered to be right. The title suggests he is talking about one person when in reality he is talking about society as a whole and how the government saw it. We as people see the government as leaders who represent and enforce our values while we are considered to be just another number. Lastly an unknown citizen falls prey to government control. The government itself is the speaker in Auden’s poem. This is why Auden uses plurals like ours. In the eyes of the state, the man they considered a saint was the governments idea of the perfect man. The government does not truly care about him just the fact that he does what he is told. Words such as Greater Community, Installment Plan, Modern Man, and Public Opinion are capitalized to show the emphasis that the government puts on these concepts. Everything about his life is closely monitored, even his private life. The fact that the government knows things like he likes to drink helps support that. Was he free? Was he happy? The question is absurd: Had anything been wrong, we should certainly have heard (Auden 864) suggests that the government does not care about people’s happiness or freedom. It is human nature for a person to want to belong and be part of something. Even though the poem was written over sixty five years ago it does have some truth. As technology becomes better, faster and accurate we are becoming more of a statistic and less human. Yet in a society that dehumanizes us, we still want to be a part of it. No one wants to be considered as an outcast or looked down upon for being different.

Ac Power Logger Using Mcp39009 Engineering Essay

Ac Power Logger Using Mcp39009 Engineering Essay In this project we are going to record power consumption using MCP3909 by using AVR 5A microcontroller. This MCP 3909 is an energy metering IC with SPI interface and active power pulse output. Where the MCP3909 used in two different phases that can be operated at a time like 1.Output through active pulse power and 2. Waveform obtained as output through SPI interface. For the output real pulse power, the device gives frequency output proportional to instantaneous power. For the waveform output, it gathers data from the current and voltage channel and both are 16 bit second order delta sigma ADC . Through out this project time I learnt to do coding in C programming to get pulse output that shows the consumption of power. This program is developed to use with microcontroller Easy AVR 5A type of AT Mega 16. This program is executed by using AVR Studio by running it through AVR Flash and the output pulse wave form is gathered at AT Mega 16 board and we can check using oscilloscope. Here to have connection between AVR board AT Mega 16 and CPU we use USB which acts like supply and we use USART to transfer data between each other. As in my project I have MCP3909 as separate board I should give correct connection between MCP 3909 and AT Mega 16 correct supply connections. As I am doing project in embedded microcontroller with C programming and output I get is pulse waveform so for better performance and other reasons I took Easy AVR AT Mega 16 development board with 8 KHz frequency. My project is AC power logger using MCP3909 where MCP 3909 is an energy metering IC with SPI interface and active power pulse output. Where the MCP3909 used in two different methods where they can be operated at a time like 1.Output pulse power and 2. Waveform we get as output through SPI interface. For the active real power pulse output, the device gives output frequency which is proportional to instantaneous power. For the waveform output, it gathers data from the current and voltage channel and both are 16 bit second order delta sigma ADC which over samples input signal at frequency equal to MCLK/4 and allows large range of input signals. For channel 0, the increase in the current at channel 0 is done through programmable gain amplifier increase.. As I get pulse count at output when we use oscilloscope to get exact count and good performance I use Easy AVR 5A AT Mega 16 microcontroller. This AT Mega 16 microcontroller allows assembly language and C language programming but I did coding for counting the power consumption using MCP3909 in C language. In this first I gave USB and USART connection between CPU and AT Mega 16 board, here I gave MCP3909 connection with AT Mega 16 and gave current and voltage channel input to MC3909 and I get pulse output this is with out SPI pin not in use but still they should be connected. But for SPI connection program I will give voltage and current with 50hz frequency and take output voltage and current values from the hyper terminal connection and calculate the output values. In this whole project time I began to understand the SPI and USART connection to write program in C language and also understood how the MCP3909 works . The energy meter is a device which is used for electrical measuring, it is used to record electrical energy consumed in specific period of time in terms units Every house, small factory, business establishments, shops, offices etc need at minimum one energy meter to register power consumption. The one who supplies electricity raises bills based on readings shown in energy meter. The one who produces electricity sale the electricity to the electricity boards and board will sale this to costumer. So the data generated by the energy meter is the base to raise bill by the power supplier. This energy meter products are available in single and three phases at different current ratings as per customer requirements. This energy meters are basically electrical and mechanical components. The design of energy meter depends upon which rating of voltage and current meter has to work. In this project the energy metering IC that we take is MCP3909 which is used for supporting IEC 62053 which is standard international meter. It gets the output frequency which is proportional to real power as input so as to access the ADC channel and output of multiplier data. The delta sigma which is 16bit ADC is used to allow large range of currents using the design. The exact or appropriate energy IC is available in the industry which is highly reliable and which has 24-lead SSOP output pin. In this functional as we can see it shows ch0 and ch1 channels where these are inputs and given from the current and voltage transformers .The gains g0 and g1 are also given as input and the dual functionality pin is connected for SPI connections and also for f0, f1,f2. The outputs we take from the active power DTF conversion as HFout and other outputs Fout0 and Fout1 are obtained from stepper motor output drive for active power. The above one is the general block diagram of MCP3909, but the diagram that I use here shows the diagram with the connections , this shows how the MCP 3909 is internally connected to oscillators ,jumpers and for the output using its 24pins. It shows that for the jumper j7 it connects internally to fout 0/1, hfout. For the jumper j2 it shows the connections to spi communications connected and the jumper j6 to ch0 and ch1 channels. The digital voltage acts as digital circurity in MCP3909 where it is the one where we get digital power supply. This pin requires appropriate by pass capacitors and should be maintained to 5V. In both the input channel levels this pin acts as HPF and where it controls the flow of signals. The logic 1 will activate both the filters for removing the DC offset from the system and this logic 0 will disable both the filters so due to this they allow DC voltage. This is analog circuit pin which is used to give analog power supply with in MCP 3909 an this pin requires exact bypass capacitor which gives ramp signal with rising and falling edges and it must be maintained at 5V. This pins are used for current measurements and where they initially take analog voltage as input and convert to current and this will have PGA for small input signal. The linear and the region where it characteristics of this channel are dependent on PGA gain. It relates to maximum voltage of 470Mv/G and the voltage range changes from 1 to 6 V with respect to Agnd. . This pins are used for voltage measurement and this pins initially take difference analog voltage input. The linear and specific behaviour of this voltage channel is maximum at 660mV with absolute voltage 1V Here for the internal 2.4V reference the output is the reference in/out and with temperature coefficient of 15ppm/c. Here by applying the voltage to this pin from the specified range we can use external reference and these reference in/out pin uses bypass capacitor to AGND even when using internal reference.. This is the analog ground where all the ADC,PGA,POR and band gap reference are connected to ground and this is analog circuit. To have noise signal to be cancelled this pin should be connected to same ground as Dgnd with star connection. This is the normal ground connection where SINC filters, multipliers, HPF, LPF, digital to frequency convertor and oscillator; this is used as internal circuit connection. To have accurate and noise to be cancelled this digital ground should be grounded same as analog ground with star connection. The output pins that are connected to MCP3909 are frequency outputs that give us real power and the signal that we get when connected to oscilloscope is pulse where this pulse period is directly proportional to power and Fc constant. This pins helps us to activate the electro mechanical counters and also two phase stepper motor. The high frequency output supplies instantaneous real power information and out put is periodic pulse and where it is directly proportional to measured l power and HFC constant obtained by F0,F1,F2 logic gates and the output that obtained is the fastest output frequency. These oscillators will provide sine waveform with clock source and these oscillators are mainly used to give clock signal for master in the device. The clock frequency is given as 3.57MHz and this clock frequency value should range from 1to 4 MHz with out any error. In this to convert the signal from digital domain which has wide dynamic range we use PGA to do this function which is common thing done in wireless communication. To load normally input signal from analog to digital we need to increase the amplitude so to do this we use PGA. High resolution sigma to delta ADCs all have Programmable Gain Amplifier at input to the sigma to delta modulator is given as shown below The PGA on the ADs chip offer eight input ranges to ADC with 2.5 voltage reference, the eight reference voltages are 2.56V,1.28V,640mv,160mv,40mv.if reference voltage is doubled to 5v then full scale input for each range is halved. So the actual signal range for any PGA settings are given as, VREF*1.024/2(7-RN) where RN value is 111 when ref voltage is 2.5v The main use of PGA is that the noise in terms of micro voltage decreases when the gain increased. In effect the input signal is gained up but the noise is not gained up, so there is an improvement in signal to noise ratio. The pins reference sampling rate is given at 524 khz and capacitor value is fixed so there is no variation in reference current and any gain error that has due to resistance on reference input is also fixed. If reference current changes on sigma to delta the gain error that occurs also varies and the benefit of using ADC will be lost. The PGA for the ADC offers benefits of high resolution and low noise at high gain , but without the disadvantages of requiring regular calibration every time the range is changed. A buffered input and new reference sampling scheme avoid many of the problems associated with previous multirange ADC. All the delta sigma ADCs , registers, filters, multipliers are controlled by reset of master clear and this pin is also used to change their serial interface and behaviour or functionality. The logic 0 controls the ADC and registers in reset condition. The only one that uses power during master clear is oscillator. The microcontroller manufactures produce other design products so that they are related to their own design and in this we require another output pin. This condition or situation is correct for small design products where they have eight pins are fewer than that. This microcontroller has two output pins, one input pin , RAM flash and ADC module .For programming the microcontroller mode you need MCLR and supply pins(VCC and GND). To run or make the coding active we need mainly power supply and MCLR,microcontroller must see the difference between normal and program mode. Here the MCLR takes 12V to enter program mode and it takes external reset or input pin to enter into normal mode. The microcontroller design uses one pin for analog input and has other three outputs and it also requires an additional output, so for this reason the circuit uses MCLR pin as output. To make MCLR pin to act as output the microcontroller uses weak pull-ups. Analog to Digital Conversion (ADC) is the process of sampling continuous analog signal and converting the signal into quantitized representation of signal in digital domain and all the ADC architectures will convert analog signal into digital representation. The conventional ADC process takes input signal x(t) into sequence of digital codes x(n) at sampling rate fs=1/t, where T represents sampling interval this sampling function is equivalent to modulating input signal by set of carrier signals with frequencies 0,fs,2fs †¦. The sample signal is expressed as summation of original signal component and frequency, here the frequency modulated by integer multiple of sampling frequency. The signal component at frequency in input signal cannot be properly sampled and such signals get folded in base band signal creating in this non-linear is referred to as aliasing . Anti-aliasing filters are therefore required to prevent aliasing. Many A/D converters have successive or continuous approximation register and flash converters operate at nyquist rate fn. These converters sample analog signal at sample frequency equal to twice maximum frequency of input signal. Sigma Delta AD converters do not digitize the incoming analog signal into digital sample of n-bit precision at nyquist rate, sigma delta ADC samples the analog signal by an sample ratio N resulting Fn One of the advantages of sigma-delta ADC over nyquist ADC is the relaxation of the requirements for the anti aliasing filter. The requirement of anti-aliasing filter for nyquist rate ADC require sharp pass band (fs) to stop band (fn) The sigma delta ADC contains simple analog circuits like voltage reference, comparator, integrator,summing circuit and switch and in this the digital circuit consists of digital signal processing which acts as filter. Now consider technique of oversampling in frequency domain when converting to dc signal it has quantization error up to  ½ LSB and this sampled data has quantization noise. If ADC is less than perfect or exact value its noise is greater than quantization noise so due to this its resolution will be small than n bits and its actual resolution is given by The sampling rate is chosen as Kfs then quantization noise is q/sqrt12 due to this noise will spread at bandwidth dc to Kfs/2 , So to reduce noise we use digital low pass filter at output with out disturbing the wanted signal. K is referred as sampling ratio and this sampling relaxes requirement on the analog antialiasing filter. Here the data rate is less than the sampling rate and to satisfy nyquist criteria and this is done by using low pass filter to reduce the bandwidth, this process can be done by giving Mth result to output with neglecting the remainder and this process is known as decimation by factor M. This M can have any value such that output data rate is greater than twice the bandwidth. If we use oversampling to improve resolution then the oversampling must be factor of 22N to get N bit resolution increase, the sigma delta converters does not require any large oversampling because it limits to pass band signal and shapes the quantization noise to fall outside the pass band as shown in figure. Here we have 1-bit comparator (ADC) when we use it integrator output, then sum the input voltage with output of 1-bit DAC which we get from ADC output.. The digital low pass filter and decimator at digital output are added to get sigma delta ADC and after this signal is given to modulator where it modifies quantization noise by making it to lie above pass band filter ,so due to this the ENOB is larger than the expected sampling ratio. The sigma delta ADC operation is like the input given as Vin which is dc and the integrator consistently move up and down at node A and here output of comparator is given to 1-bit DAC and summing point at node B. This negative feedback value will force the average dc voltage at node B to be equal to Vin. The output voltage from the DAC is controlled in the 1-bit data stream of the comparator output. After that when the input signal rises at Vref, the number of ones at the serial bit stream also increase and due to this there is decrease in zeroes and in the same way as the signal of Vref goes negative the serial bit stream at one decrease and at zero it increases. Here it shows that average value at voltage as input is in serial bit stream which comes from comparator and decimator and filter allow stream and give output. The data from the 1-bit ADC is not worth full when the given input value is single sample interval, so when we have more number of samples that are averaged will provide correct value. The sigma delta can not give detailed values in the time domain because of the single bit data output, so when the single input is near positive side it shows more ones than zero and in the same way when the input signal is near to negative it shows more number of zeroes than ones and if it is in midscale then it shows equal number of zeroes and ones. The below figure shows the output of integrator for two conditions where the first one is for input zero near the midscale so decode them pass output samples through low pass filter that averages every four samples this shows the bipolar zero. So from this we can say that if more number of samples are averaged more dynamic range is obtained. The sigma delta ADC can also be seen as synchronous voltage to frequency converter with the counter. If the number of ones in the output data stream is counted from the samples then the counter output will give digital value of output, this method applies only when have dc or for slow changing input signal. The 2N clock cycles are counted to achieve N-bit resolution and there by for getting effective sampling rate. Here noise shaping is explained in frequency domain by using sigma delta modulator. In this the integrator which is present in the modulator represents an analog low pass filter with transfer function H(f)=1/f and this transfer function shows that the amplitude not directly proportional to frequency. The one bit quantize gives quantization noise Q and it is given to output sum block. If we have input signal X and output signal Y the value that comes out of summing point is X-Y and after that it is multiplied by the transfer function and this is given as, From the equation if we see that if f=0 the output Y reaches X with no noise , and at high frequency the amplitude of the signal reaches zero and noise value reaches Q. So due to this the analog filter has signal effect on low pass and high pass effect on noise Q. This filter does noise shaping at given frequency in delta sigma model and higher order filter gives more attenuation in sigma delta modulators but some precautions should be taken. We get good quantization noise and best ENOB for given sample when we have more integrator and summing points in sigma delta modulator. This figure is giving the relationship between order of sigma delta modulator and oversampling amount to reach SNR. If oversampling is taken 60 then the second order capable of giving SNR of 80db and also gives ENOB value as 13 and in this we have filter to reduce noise and decimator to decide degree. This carries 13 bit outside but if you want to use additional bits, these added bits that carry signals has no useful value and buried in quantization noise unless the post filtering is used. The resolution can be increased from the 1-bit system by increasing the oversampling ratio or by higher order modulator. In the other method for the waveform output we give current and voltage as input which are 16bit and then given to second order sigma delta ADC where it oversamples input at frequency equal to MCLK/4 and with this it allows for wide range of input signals. The input current channel (channel 0) usable range is increased with the programmable gain amplifier and this is linked with block diagram of MCP3909 and gives in detail of its signal processing blocks. To cancel the system offset on both the channels we use to high pass filter and from output of filter we get voltage and current, so when calculating power we should not get any offset. As this signals are not having DC offset so the averaging technique is used to give active power output. The power signal at we get after filtering is active power output it is DC component and for averaging technique use sine and non-sine waveform after this the ADC takes real power to give output pulse where the frequency is directly proportional to real power. The frequency present at FOUT 0, FOUT1 outputs are used to drive counters and stepper motor which shows power consumed. Every pulse from F0, F1, F2 settings are used to give fixed amount of energy , the HFOUT has less integration and high frequency to represent power signal and due to less time it helps the user to get values fastly under steady condition. . For the current and voltage transducers the MCP3909 analog inputs are connected and each pin has specifications like it should pass from 5kV to 500V contact charge. The differential input is given for both the channels to reduce noise and absolute voltage should be kept at 1V related to AGND so this can do error measurement. The common mode signal is taken to respect both last condition and input voltage difference range and for good common mode ration to should be referred to ground. The current channel has PGA gain to measure small signal with out other signal. The maximum differential voltage we have at channel0 is 470mV/Gain. The maximum voltage fro channel1 is 660mV. For channel 0 gain selection is given as, This MCP3909 has internally POR to check supply voltage AVdd and this check when the systems power is on or off. This POR has built in hysteresis and timer to check potential ripple and noise on power supply. For this the threshold voltage is typically set to 4V. The MCP3909 is kept in reset state if the supply voltage falls less than threshold voltage and hysteresis value is 200mV to prevent glitches. Once the power is on the internal timer stop sending the pulse with MCLK=3.58MHz there by preventing potential metastability. For calculating the active power the MCP3909 use digital filter which is first order IIR filter where we can extract real power (DC component) from the power signal. Since the input power signal has harmonic content. We get ripples from the filter output at line of frequency when the filter is not ideal. To reduce the noise for line frequency at 50Hz we use cut off frequency as input clock (MCLK=3.58 MHz). The rejection of frequency component will be more than 20db. In this at the frequency converter the output of filter is stored and then it is helpful to compare threshold for Fout0/1 and HFout and each time threshold is crossed we get pulse. The Fout0/1 require more energy to get output pulse than HFout , like integration period and as this acts as filter the output ripple or noise is minimum. The threshold or transfer function of HFout and Fout0/1 are different to each other. The threshold energy or transfer function are different to each other , the Fout0/1 output frequencies are quite low in order to allow integration. In this synchronous serial transmission clock is shared between sender and receiver or the sender gives timing signal so that the receiver knows when to read next bit of data. In this serial transmission if we do not have data to send then fill character is sent instead of data so to keep transmission continually, these synchronous communication is efficient because in these we have only data transmission between sender and receiver.. for example the synchronous transmission is used between printer and fixed device where data is sent in one set of wire and clock is sent in different wire. This RS 232 is asynchronous serial communication method which is used for computers and others, it is called as asynchronous because there is no synchronizing clock present like which is in SPI where it is serial protocol, the serial protocol is such that it automatically synchronize itself. We can use RS 232 to easily create data link between boards and standard PC, you can makes data loggers that read analog value from ADC and give it to PC this is done by writing program that shows data with using graphs. In serial communication the byte is sent or transmitted one bit at time but in parallel communication the whole data like byte (8 bit) transmitted at a time. So for that we use parallel communication to send data in shorten distance like between graphic card and CPU and these parallel can have say many wires as possible , but serial communication uses one wire to transfer data so it is used for long distance. In series the logic level changes with the bit being transmitted (0 or 1) and to know which is start bit and end bit in byte we need to add synchronize line and note the value of data line when the clock line is high but this is the way the serial buses like SPI work . UART is not having clock because it is asynchronous but start bit and stop bit are used to synchronize the incoming data. When the word is in transmission start bit is added at start of each word and this tells the receiver that data is read to sent and forces the receiver clock to be synchronous with clock of transmitter. These two must not have same frequency drift but can have same clock. After the start bit is sent each bit in word are given least significant bit (LSB) and each bit from transmitter is sent with same time and receiver is in half way to check that bit is one or zero. The sender will not know when receiver looks at the bits but sender knows when the clock says to begin to send next bit of word. When the complete data word is sent the transmitter adds parity bit and at the receiver uses this parity bit for error checking and at last the one stop bit is sent by the transmitter, if the receiver does not receive the stop bit when it is supposed to be the UART thinks the entire word to be garbled and reports framing error to host when data word is read. This framing error occurs because the sender and receiver clocks are not running at same speed. Whether the data is sent or not the UART automatically discard start, stop and parity bit and if another word is coming the start bit for new word comes as soon as the stop bit for existing word been sent RS 232 In this it has two data line like RX and TX , where TX is the wire where data is sent out to other device and RX is the line in which other device put data it needs to send. We know that high = 5v and low =0v for MCU boards and this RS 232 has high=12v and low=-12v. So to make RS 232 to interface with MCU which understands 0 to 5 volts we use MAX232. As RS232 has no clock line for synchronization perfect timing is needed so transmissions are carried out in certain speed which is bits per second and number of bits transmitted per second is know as baud rate. Some standard rates are 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, etc. RS 232 Level conversion As seen above the RS232 signals differ from signals in MCU, this level converter will convert RS 232 signals from -12 to 12 volts from PC to signal 0 to 5 volts to fed to MCU. It is good to check the operation so we use converter to see its working nature, so for this we need Hyper-terminal windows software which is used to open COM port and to send and receive textual data. For testing we need to connect output RX/TX together so data written to COM ports to enter our circuit and converted to MCU board signal level. After this understand the USART of AVR Microcontroller and write code to activate USART to send and receive data, like other microcontrollers AVR also has main hardware for serial communication this is called USART. In this USART hardware you need to write data to one of registers. Clock generation. This generator generates the base clock for transmitter and receiver, this USART supports four modes of clock operation 1. Normal Asynchronous, 2. Double speed asynchronous, 3. Master synchronous and 4.slave synchronous mode. The UMSEL bit in the UCSRC (control and status register) is the one that selects between synchronous and asynchronous operation. Double speed(asynchronous mode) is controlled by U2X found in UCSRA register. When UMSEL=1 the data direction register for the XCK controls weather the clock source is internal (master mode) or external (slave mode) and this is shown in block diagram Txclk- transmitter clock(internal signal) Rxclk receiver clock(internal signal) Xcki used for synchronous slave operation Xcko used for synchronous master operation Fcso- system clock Baud rate generator The USART Baud rate register and down counter are connected as programmable prescaler or baud rate generator. The down counter which is running at the system clock(fosc) is loaded with UBRR value each time the counter has counted down to zero and clock is generated each time counter reaches zero and the clock generated is the baud rate generator clock output = fosc/(UBRR+1). The transmitter divides the baud rate generator clock output by 2,8.16 depending on the mode and this baud rate generator is directly used by receiver clock and data recovery units. The baud rate generator equations are given as, Operating mode Calculating baud rate Calculating UBRRvalue Asynchronous normal mode Baud= fosc/(UBRR+1)16 UBRR= fosc/16baud   1 Asynchronous double speed mode Baud= fosc/(UBRR+1)8 UBRR= fosc/8baud   1 Synchronous master mode Baud= fosc/(UBRR+1)2 UBRR= fosc/2baud   1 External clock The synchronous mode operation is done by using external clock and external clock input from XCK is sampled by synchronous register to reduce change in stability and the output from synchronous register must pass through edge detector before it is used by transmitter and receiver. This process includes two CPU clock period delay and its frequency is given as FXCK USART of AVR The USART of AVR is connected to CPU by these six registers UDR- USART Data Register: basically this is not one but two register , when you read it data is stored in receiver buffer and when you write it gives to transmitter buffer. UCSRA: USART Control and Status Register: as it name says it stores some status about USART and there are some of this kind like UCSRB and UCSRC. UBRRH and UBRRL: This is USART baud rate register, it i s16 bit wide so UBRRH is high byte and UBRRL is low byte . To write programs with using USART you need to study about each register, the seen behind using USART is same with other internal peripheral. now we will describe each registers clearly This bit is set when USART completed receiving byte from host and program should read from UDR and this flag bit is set when unread data is present in receiver buffer and gets cleared when receiver buffer is empty. If the receiver is disabled, the receiver buffer is flushed and the RXC will completely zero. Bit 6- TXC: transmit complete This bit is set 1 when USART has completed transmitting byte to host and program can write new data to USART through UDR. The transmit flag bit is cleared automatically when TXC interrupt is executed. Bit 5 UDRE USART Data Register Empty The UDRE flag first tells us that the transmit buffer (UDR) is ready to